Tuesday, September 22, 2009

Atomic Clock

Here are my thoughts about the atomic clock.

An atomic clock is a clock that kind of an atomic resonance frequency standard as your accountant. While the time base of a conventional clock is that the pendulum, the atomic clock is based on the properties of atoms in the transition between different energy states.

The first person to express the concept of the atomic clock is Columbia University, Isidor Rabi in 1945. He suggested that a clock can be made from a technique developed in the 1930s called atomic beam magnetic resonance. In 1949, the National Bureau of Standards introduced the world atomic clock, first with the ammonia molecule as the source of the vibration, and the first atomic clock using cesium atoms as the vibration source announced in 1952.

Both conventional watches and atomic clocks use oscillations to monitor the passage of time. The vibration frequencies within the atom depends on the mass of the core and the gravity and electrostatic "spring" between the positively charged nucleus and the electron cloud around it.

The most accurate atomic clocks available today use cesium atom and normal magnetic fields and detectors. Cesium-133 is the most chosen for atomic clocks. The operation of a cesium-beam atomic clock is based on the transition between two states in the cesium atom. Rubidium is also used in atomic clocks, and reduces the cost, however, less stable rubidium clocks. Hydrogen maser short-term stability and low long-term precision. Mercury ion is also used in some of the atomic clocks. A particular isotope of Ytterbium has a particularly precise resonant frequency in one of the hyperfine transitions. Strontium has a hyperfine transition that is not correct. Strontium can be powered by solid-state lasers can be used for a very low cost, long life and compact clock making. Cesium atomic clocks are used in laboratories, such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology to keep the national timetables.

Thursday, September 3, 2009

The Structure of Atom

These are some facts about the structure of atom.

Before discussing the structure of atoms, we must learn the words mass and weight. If we on the moon, our weight will be less, but our mass is the same. It is said that if you want to lose weight, go to My To lose weight, dieting and exercise. For our purpose in this article, the mass and weight terms are used interchangeably, because we are on earth.

Hydrogen, helium, carbon, nitrogen called elements. There are just over 100 known elements, and are included in the periodic table. All matter is composed of various combinations of these 100 + PIECES. If water is composed of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Each water molecule contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen - H2O.

All atoms have a nucleus with electrons zooming around. It can be compared to planets (electrons) move around the Sun (nucleus.)

The nucleus contains most of the mass or weight of the atom. The key to finding the protons and neutrons. The number of protons of each type of atom is the same. For hydrogen atoms, for example always a proton. Helium atoms are always two protons. All carbon atoms have six protons. All nitrogen atoms have seven protons, etc.

The periodic table is arranged in numerical order, depending on the number of protons, atoms of the element have. This number is the atomic number. Hydrogen has atomic number 1. The atomic number of helium 2. The atomic number of carbon 6. The atomic number of nitrogen 7, etc.

The number of neutrons in the atoms changes. Helium atoms are sometimes 2 neutrons and others have 3 neutrons. The atoms of carbon and other sometimes 6 neutrons 7 neutrons. Nitrogen atoms have 7 neutrons and others have 8 neutrons, scientists, etc. to calculate an average.

If you add up the number of protons and neutrons in the mean of an atom, you get the atomic mass or atomic weight or mass number. These three terms refer to the same. If you look at a periodic table, you will see that the mass number of helium is 4003, the atomic mass of carbon is 12.01, the atomic weight of nitrogen is 14.01, etc.

Protons have a positive charge. Neutrons have no charge they are neutral. Electrons have a negative charge. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons and protons are equal, balancing it out in neutral. Electron little mass or weight. Electrons zooming around outside the nucleus in orbitals and to take part in chemical reactions. The protons and neutrons remain where they are located in the nucleus. They do not take part in chemical reactions.

Monday, August 31, 2009

The Atomic Models

Here are my thoughts on the atomic models.

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Since all matter consists of atoms, it is important to understand the atom and its components, in particular of the electron.

Why electrons? Since the electron configuration determines how an element behaves in chemical bonds and chemical reactions. So, if you understand the electron will make you a better understanding of chemistry.

However, you must note that the atom and its components are so small that scientists are not able to work directly with the atom. Therefore, chemists and physicists, models need to help create a description of the atom. But a scientific model is to provide information available when it is created, limited. Thus, if new experiences may lead to new discoveries, the model must be modified or scrapped.

Change Despite the fact that the scientists describe models, the models, the only way of man, as the work of many natural phenomena. And knowing how a process is often crucial for the further scientific discovery. The best estimates of Man, then, the models are not the truth, the models are, how things work. For this reason, the importance of models is not the truth, but their maneuverability.

Keep in mind that the models created by the people and may have prejudices, errors and inaccuracies. Remember always to be models in the light of the scientific method and willing to discard what is not measured.

Even if the models are not perfect, there are five models of the atom, for the understanding of matter. The more these models, you will be better chemistry. The five models are:

* The solid sphere model
* The Plum Pudding Model
* The core model
* The Bohr model
* The Wave Mechanical Model

Solid sphere model

The solid sphere model was proposed in 1803 by John Dalton. John Dalton was a chemistry teacher in English and mathematics, that the ideas have taken his time and in a model of how the matter instead. He said that the material made of tiny indivisible particles as atoms and atoms of the same element are all equal. They also include the law of multiple proportions and the law of definite in his model. Although the model was not perfect, it was the most important primary model for over 90 years.

Plum Pudding

Proposed in 1897 the English physicist JJ Thomson, that cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles even smaller than atoms. In fact, he suggested, these subatomic particles are parts of the atom. Thus, Dalton's theory of indivisible particles was no longer profitable. A new theory, which was not allowed for subatomic particles is required.

Thus, Thomson suggested that the atom had set a mass of positive charge with negative electrons in it, like raisins in a pudding, and that the plum pudding model. Thomson's model, though attractive, but had many shortcomings.

Nuclear Type

In 1906, Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues conducted the famous gold foil experiment, led to the discovery of the nucleus and the atom is mostly space.

Experience has shown that the gold leaf of the mass of the atom are the same as was predicted by the model of Thompson, but the volume of the crowd was much smaller and seemed to not be located in the center of the atom. Thomson's plum pudding model was no longer viable. Thus, in 1911, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of the atom.

The Bohr model

In 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, has proposed that the application of quantum theory, the Rutherford model. New model proposed by Bohr, to eliminate the electron energy levels he called orbits. The energy of these orbits is quantized, and must include the electron energy to move or exempt (photons) at specified wavelengths between energy levels.

The Wave Mechanical Model

Im Jahr 1921 schrieb Louis de Broglie, aber keine empirischen Belege dafür, dass, wenn die Wellen haben Eigenschaften Sache dann Sache sollte Welle Eigenschaften haben. Later, Bell Labs will ensure that the de Broglie hypothesis was indeed true. De Broglie's hypothesis was a revelation that even Einstein impressed and changed the design of the atom always.

The combination of the hypothesis of Louis de Broglie's model Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger proposed the electron is a 3-D waveform around the nucleus in a wide range of wavelengths to the shape of the wave to repeat itself as a stable standing wave, what the energy levels of the Bohr model.

In support of his thesis Schrödinger developed a mathematical equation to describe the behavior of the electron wave. The Schrodinger equation was not only the correct energy levels for atomic hydrogen, but also something useful for atoms with more than one electron. This mathematical description of the details of atomic behavior has become known as "Wave mechanical model.

The atom, as we see today is mainly space with a central location, very small, dense nucleus with positively charged protons and neutral neutrons with negatively charged electrons in the energy levels in the room placed Atomic loaded.

Sunday, August 30, 2009

4D model of the atom

Here are my thoughts on a 4D model of the atom.

Exact science in general very reluctant to accept change, constantly generated by empirical constant physical size as the fine structure constant, then the use of these dimensionless constants explain anomalies in three mathematical quantum theory of atomic dimensions.

When asked what is a physical constant? whether and how the value of the physical constants is apparent from the first principles, one usually does not answer immediately.

In 1906 it was clear from the theory of Albert Einstein's special relativity theory, suggested that the basic three-dimensional geometry could not describe the universe, and that a new form of geometry is necessary.

To explain why we have a four-dimensional model of atoms, use is better described below, which I hope the spirit and most critical demand.

The size of the traditional three-atom model, in principle, has a length, width and length and the atom is described as a positive nucleus with electrons in orbit, we saw all the models, and are often still used. This type of atomic models were established nearly a century ago, according to the time of Neil Bohr (1885-1962). Bohr in 1913 formulated an alternative model atom, where only some of the electrons in circular orbits are allowed and it is here that the amount determined by the atomic model.

Even the last statement implies "circular orbits, that is what we expect to happen in an atom of detention. However, the atom is not strong at all and never stopped.
The traditional three-dimensional atomic model, has a plant built in the mathematical formula that can explain and describe the acceleration caused by constant stress or internal functions atomic atoms imposed spiral continues and orbital acceleration vectors in the cosmos, the rotation of the earth and the orbit of the Sun Sun includes constant.

Atomic positions within the atom are constantly evaluated in terms of energy, which is directly proportional to the atomic mass of atoms. This amendment shall enter into the fourth dimension, since the atom is in constant acceleration, such as forced to the direction of the velocity vector of the spiral physics acceleration and change.

For this reason, the conventional three-dimensional model requires an arsenal of physical constants, which were used for the conduct of some of the more unusual foreign atoms and the observed patterns of radiation from the atom to explain. This behavior has lived for centuries by the many brilliant physicists in their studies on the basic structure of the atomic model.

The atom is mostly composed of electrically charged particles that can not be regarded as permanent, and fundamental electromagnetic theory is that particles moving charges generate magnetic fields. From this perspective, of course you can see that moving the atoms in the universe must also magnetic forces caused by the motion of particles in the physical universe to generate.

These electromagnetic fields caused by the motion of the atomic structure of the universe ever in a model of the atomic theory, but this movement is always in effect for all atomic particles.

Once we believe that atoms of environmental conditions, we realize that these environmental conditions in the atomic structure as atoms within the environmental conditions.

Many say that the first atomic cancel complaints and no external magnetic atom present as precipitates in the universe. But I say you can only undo once proven sufficiently universal movement. After all costs of atomic particles can be equal and opposite, but the mass of the particles are much less.

It is the right time for us to enter the fourth dimension, only then will we be able to find out how the fundamental forces of nature work.

Sunday, August 16, 2009

Smaller Than Small

Here the fact about smaller than small.

He can not entirely clear, but the word is common bottom. It 'not only in relative terms, as some physical properties, but has a big space. These are small stars, and small insects. It 'too hard to define, in the field, particularly low.

It 'clear, even on "old" if you have something to distribute to small and smaller pieces, it will not become more a matter physics. This is an idea or concept. Philosophers believe that the multitude of things in the world can be found in a single unit. Democritus and Leucippus I thought that this was the atom, the eternal, indivisible and indestructible. Previously, a school of ancient Indian philosophy (vaisheshik) had the same idea that Atomic Energy Agency (Cana Sanskrit word), the basic unit of any in the world. Vedanta has gone even further and there was not even a sentence on the smaller units. They said that the truth behind existence 'less than the smallest, so that nichtmaterielle ceremony.

Not long ago the atom was indivisible, even in science. We now know that the atom is divisible. It is composed of electrons, protons and neutrons. Of course, the protons and neutrons are made up of particles known as quark. In fact, there are elementary particles now, all these different configurations of vibration (energy). Although these particles (packets of energy) for various methods of combining, in matters of shape, not the objects in the usual sense. They are just concepts. But all physical phenomena can be explained by this correction. The conduct of policies can not be the everyday language, and therefore the language of mathematics, in their description.

If we are the first in the division, which comes to mind that there are a number of digits. The distribution is simpler in two parts and the process repeats itself. Take any number and the implementation of this sector, as well as greater and smaller numbers can be as close to zero as you like, but never reach. At some point, it is meaningless unless the trial.

This is exactly what happens in particle physics. If you are electrons, photons, quarks, and there was no other distribution. That's it, finally, as regards the wave functions, the wave (or energy) is the endpoint. The theory of strings in different versions only the conclusion that energy is the main institution in the world. The energy is dominant and can not be divided. In this sense, it is also infinite. And 'the beginning and end.

The equivalence of matter and energy is a fact. The transformation of matter into energy is very well known. The challenge for science today is to find, such as energy. Ancient philosophy (Vedanta, Sankhya) suggested, the nature and modalities of this transformation occurs. These are, of course, the quality of proposals and even then you can not test them. But physics is not just a concept and process of manufacture of particle vibration channel is not yet proven

The Idea of The Atom

Further information about the idea of the atom.

Models and mechanisms of particle behavior, and other materials have been for thousands of years. Especially in the past centuries, but these models have been improved and clarified. In the following chapters some of these events are, as the path of our current model of the atom, which explains all the laws and that their behavior.

The first model of the type of atoms and it was in ancient times. Leukippos Greek philosopher (ca. 500-400 BC) and his pupil Democritus (ca. 460-370 BC) were the first to describe this issue in our world as a collection of atoms (in Greek: indivisible). His theory is based on the idea that if a body into smaller parts to a certain point are so small that they can no longer divide. You have the words to describe this issue are made. According to this theory, the atoms are small organizations that are not shared.

Atoms are made of various materials in different composition and size. The properties of the materials, and is therefore due to differences of the individual atoms: the differences in their size, their grouping and mutual understanding. Beginning of the 19th Century, the model of atomic mass on which Greek and after J. Dalton (1766-1844). According to his theory, which is made up of small particles called atoms

The atoms of all materials used are distinguished by their weight and their size. In the course of chemical reactions, the atoms remain unchanged. Of course, the number and position of atoms in the reagents and the compounds can not change. Be combined in the region that the change in the proportions and combinations in a single reaction. In much the atomic mass atoms consist of a nucleus and electrons.

The atom is, of course, from elementary particles. At the center of an atom of neutrons (free) and positively charged protons. Atoms of the same element always contains the same number of protons. Only the number of neutrons can vary slightly (in the isotopes). The atoms of the same element that differ only by the number of neutrons they contain, and its atomic mass. Otherwise, the isotopes of an element have the same physical and technical characteristics and the element itself

The core is on average relatively small compared to the atom itself, the bulk of the mass of an atom. The mass of protons and neutrons, the number 1. The number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number. This number is also the symbol of the atom, or an element of the periodic table of elements. (Hydrogen (H) = 1, helium (He) = 2, etc.). The electrons (negatively charged particles) around the nucleus of an atom electronic orbital resources, where you can find. Its mass is relatively small - 1 / 1836 of the mass of protons and neutrons. There are so many electrons that the number of protons in the nucleus. Therefore, every atom in its natural state is neutral.

Atoms can lose one or more of its electrons. If they do, they are positively charged. Furthermore, atoms can gain electrons, the negatively loaded. When an atom gains or loses electrons is the ion. Outside the scope of an atom, the shell, out of mind, and where are the electrons, making the most of his size. This area is primarily a gap. The electrons move in certain areas around the nucleus. Some electrons are closer to the core, the other (within the orbit, the electrons or closed). Others are farther from the core (the outermost layer of electrons).

Nucleus of an atom does not change during a chemical reaction. For this reason, it is very important. Of course, the electrons of an atom determine the behavior of the skin (in most cases, the electrons in the rail).

The energy of an electron is defined by means of letters and numbers, depending on the train where the electron. Of great importance is the removal of an electron by the core. The exact location of the electrons of an atom, it is impossible to determine because of the situation and the email address of a person can not be calculated (Heisenberg uncertainty principle).

More precisely, we seek to the position of an electron, less precise, our ability to determine its direction. Why? Since it is impossible to tell in which direction the electrons move in the time they have established their position. Unfortunately, only the probability that the electron can be calculated. Even if we know that the Executive an electron is moving, its exact location can not be localized. The course, simply the area where a particular electron energy can be found, it is more likely is Erdumkreisung atomic radius.

Duality

Because of their atoms and electrons can not be studied directly, the reality on the atomic level is more or less unknown. Atomic radius features which can be seen, however, the atomic models can be. The accuracy of the models is in their ability to explain certain phenomena. Often these very small particles have characteristics that are not often used in the macro world we live in are capable of the electrons of a certain principle of duality - such as the light: the duality of waves and particles. This means that on the one hand, an electron can be a kind of particle beam, like a rifle with radiation. In addition, the electrons of a pure wave-like. The electrons are not, however, one or the other, because these two features are contradictory. But both approaches need to be able to describe the behavior of an electron. Wave mechanical model of the description of the atomic structure of a foreign atom and the nature of the waves, like electrons.

Numbers quantum effects

In the model atom Niels Bohr (Danish physicist), a swarm of swarms of electrons around the nucleus of an atom. The electrons are in circulation, that in certain orbits around the nucleus. The orbit represented a certain amount of energy. All the electrons in orbit than the same amount of energy.

The energy of an electron has a quantum yield n. The largest number, the more energy an electron, which is far away from the nucleus.

When an excited electron is orbiting the furthest from the core, one with a higher energy, energy, and must therefore be on the electrons (a quantum). When an electron moves to a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit, closer to the core, the energy must not be in the form of radiation (heat, light or other type of 'electromagnetic energy. With the help of the principal quantum number is to calculate the maximum number of electrons on the outside of an atom.

The number of electrons in an atom can be calculated using the following formula 2N2, where n is the principal quantum number. Atomic radius quantum numbers to describe an atom and the electrons. A second number of quantum mechanics, as L, is the return of an electron, or its angular design time. This means that the spatial geometry. This is of crucial importance to the determination of chemical bonds in the atoms, there is a.

The energy of an electron is essentially defined by the principal quantum number n and to a lesser extent by the second quantum number l. The position of the energy, an electron from its orbit (in which the electron moves) over the outside of the magnetic field, the magnetic quantum m (many quantum-address) can be determined. After the value of m, Orbit resources can be a function of their energy.

There is a Erdumkreisung s (spherically symmetrical around the nucleus), three p orbital resources (which is probably dumbbells three decks in the core and its pointing in three directions), five d orbital resources (four-leaf structures between the p orbital resources) and seven f Orbit Resources Within each type (s, p, d, f) are the same orbital energy. If we take the electron as a small, one can imagine that its axis turns, left or right. Direction of rotation is in turn is determined by the quantum number s, for the company. With the help of these four numbers quantum effects, each electron can be precisely described.

DC electron orbital

The transfer of electrons from their orbits of the electrons is configuration. According to the principle of Pauli (Swiss-American physicist), no more than two electrons in orbit at any given time.

Orbital resources are provided by the low energy electrons with higher energy Erdumkreisung train (in the order s, p, d, f). Firstly, all orbital resources of a specific energy of an electron. Then compared to the orbit of the rotation moves on a rail of the first electron. After two electrons in an orbital is completely full. The two electrons of a pair of electrons. Single odd electrons are electrons. In each of the main elements of the group, all orbital resources SYP gradually met, such as electrons are added. For the other elements, d-orbit resources.

Ionization energy energy

The electrons have a certain amount of energy which they are assigned, and this energy is the distance from the core. When the energy is converted into an electron, an electron May increase the distance of the nucleus, or even to escape the core. In the latter case, the atom a positive charged ion. The amount of energy that is necessary is that an electron ionization energy of the atom is energy. Therefore, the irradiation of energy needed to an electron in an orbit outside of an atom is smaller than an electron, which is closer to the core.

The density of an element is represented by a series on how the question of an element are atoms around their average. The density of the individual elements can not be compared with the same volume. Depends on the density and volume.

Units of density are often kg/m3 og/cm3. The density of a number of materials are included in the tables.

At first glance there are many elements that have certain features. A close comparison of these functions, including color, state of matter (solid, liquid or gaseous), the smell, the fire and the density of substances to identify the others. If the materials are compared and contrasted characteristics that can be used in groups. The large corporations that deal with the chemical industry are: acids, alkalis, oxides, salts, metals, oil and polymers (eg, with a large number of atoms, which their models on a regular basis.

Molecules and the grains beauty

The smallest chemical potential is determined by the merger of a number of atoms - a means - as a molecule. If we have a certain amount of material to decide if yes or no, they produce a certain amount depending on the mass, volume or quantity of the particles.

In chemistry, we used the variable (s), very often as a measure of the quantity of a substance. A unit of a material is a grain of beauty. We can imagine that the quantity of a substance in a dozen chemicals, including one unit, so to speak. And, as a dozen or 12, a grain of beauty is always equal to a number of particles. Of course, this figure of more than 12 minutes, because the size of atoms and molecules. It would be difficult, in multiples of 12

A grain of beauty is a 6022 x 10 23 particles. This seemingly arbitrary number of particles is a chemical used on the truth, the use of carbon (chemical symbol C), since this element plays one of, if not the most important role in chemistry. Twelve grams (g) of the element carbon contains exactly 1 mole of atoms. Why the number of the smallest particle a large role in the chemistry? The answer to this question has to do with the nature and types of chemical reactions. In the course of a chemical reaction, the particles interact with other, often in combination to form a new substance. For example, water, is the combination, or one of two atoms, two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The mass of these two elements are not reactive enough to hold a sufficient quantity of each element in the combination, since the oxygen atoms are much heavier than hydrogen atoms.

In the laboratory, a pharmacy is not the quantity of a substance by deduction or a kind of instinct. The quantity of a substance in May, however, by its mass, which is directly related to the quantity of particles a certain quantity of the substance. The report on a certain amount of mass (m) and the quantity (n) is the molar mass (M), with a range of g / mol.

Molecular weight is determined by the sum of the masses of the atoms in a molecule. Atomic masses slightly from the Periodic Table of Elements. (Hydrogen (H) 1g/mol, helium (He) 4 g / mol, lithium (Li) 7g/mol, beryllium (Be) 9 g / mol, etc..) See Periodic Table atomic weight.

The molecular weight of water (H2O) at 18 g / mol: 1g/mol for each hydrogen atom (H) and 16 g / mol to an oxygen atom (O). The molecule consists of three atoms (2H + 1 O), or simply three parts which are to form atoms or the molecule. The number of particles of 1 mol of water 6022nd 10 23 water molecules.

The atoms of different elements have the same mass. The variable of the masses of the molecules depends on the ability to bind molecules of the components of atoms and their atomic weight.

Matter, or the mass neither created nor destroyed. If, in the course of chemical reactions: one, or other products of the reaction that they have less mass than the reagent, probably one of the products are not easily recognizable - perhaps invisible, odorless gas, or any other product of the reaction. Comparing with the scientificalness the mass of all materials as a function of the mass of all manufactured products, the same amount is still on both sides. Issue neither created nor destroyed, but can not change form.

A mixture of material in a liquid solution is a solution. These mixtures can be measured by the volume. The quantity of dissolved in the same volume of a solution can be composed of a mixture of others. In determining the amount of a substance dissolved in a solution, we use the chemical concentration (symbol: C), a measure of strength varies. "The unity of a number of moles dissolved in one liter of solution. The concentration of the substance is that the concentration of a substance in the solution. The ratio is the amount of dissolved in a given volume of solution (12 g carbon (C) in a liters of water at a concentration of 1 mol / l). We call this sum for the solution of a molar solution of carbon and short, 1 M.

To determine the molar solution, or in the event of a chemical that will need a solution to a certain molar concentration, it is necessary to calculate the mass of each material. The mass of the substance is dissolved in the necessary hardware, and the mass of the molecular weight of the material. The quantity of a substance in a solution can be calculated from the concentration of a substance and the volume of the solution.

For example, a solution of 1 molar salt we need 58.5 g of salt in 1 liter of water. Table salt is a sodium and chlorine. The chemical formula of this particular NaCl. The mass mole of NaCl is of 58.5 grams, such as sodium (Na) has a molecular weight of 23 g of chlorine (Cl) an atomic mass of 35.5 g. The two together (23 + 35.5 = 58.5). The molecular weight is easy from the Periodic Table of Elements.

A certain molar concentration does not say how a given volume of solution. Ie a 1 molar there is no guarantee that 1 liter of solution. However, a 1 M means that the proportion of dissolved substance (solution) to the volume of the dissolved substance (solvent). In our example, the salt, then instead of 58.5 g NaCl in 1 liter of water, if you had just served, 29.25 g NaCl, 0.5 l water or 117 g of salt and 2 gallons of water.

Chemical symbols

Substances and chemical reactions can be simply and directly in the chemistry. A system of symbols, abbreviations and chemical formulas are used which are all internationally recognized - by a committee of experts who have agreed to these symbols. In a first step, but somewhat abstract symbols were used. The circular symbols, the connections were used. Today, the system was by JJ Berzeliem (Swedish chemist, 1779-1848). In this system, each element has a symbol chemical, usually in Latin or Greek (eg, magnesium - Mg = oxygen or Oxygenium - O).

The elements consist of small particles of the same type. We call these particles atoms. In some parts, the atoms combine, in its natural state in two or even more, an element is off. In this case, the atoms of an element are closely linked, creating a greater chemical stability. We call these combinations of molecules and molecular substances. Small molecules are often the basic elements

gaseous or liquid. For example, the elements hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen are still together, in pairs of two. There are molecules, however, are different elements. The area "water" is an oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms.

An important basis of the chemical terminology, the concept of using small quantities of a chemical element to maximize the number of atoms, known as stoichiometry. In the language of chemical symbols, a symbol of an element is often associated with these issues, and is a chemical formula. A formula, then the part of one of the symbols, consisting of. And after each element symbol, the number of atoms of the element in the plant is. This number is smaller than the symbol. Some, such as an atom of an element is self-evident and therefore is not written, such as the chemical formula of water, H2O, defined as two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The water is not written that H2O1.

The formula is a connection through the material and he has with his constituents, which are produced. At the level of the particles, the formula in the molecule and the sum of all the atoms in the molecule, and their relationships to each other. The relationship between the number of atoms in a molecule can be calculated, for example with the help of the mass of the individual elements and their atomic weight.

Stoichiometry said that the atoms of a mutually linked to fixed.

1. The law of Dalton: The ratio of the masses of the two elements, which in a molecule may be replaced by a whole number.

2. The law to be adopted: each component contains specific mass and constant.

3 The Law of the proportions compatible: the elements together, proportional masses or numbers.

How many atoms of an element combines with the number of atoms of another element may be offset by experience and calculation. The true chemical formula for a series of connections and can not be identified easily, but if we know that the chances for the reunification of the individual (the value). That is the crucial factor for the individual elements. For example, if we know that the possibilities for a union, you can specify the number of hydrogen atoms to link. The valency of an element in conjunction with hydrogen occurs when the odd number of electrons in the outer electron cloud (cloud of electrons moving in a certain amount or in an orbit around the nucleus). For example, in water (H2O) and an oxygen atom (O) compounds with two hydrogen atoms (H) and therefore has a value of 2

In the chemical bonds of the atoms, not just add the numbers, but the ratio of the mass remains constant. For example, the chemical reaction of iron (Fe) are the sulfur (S), iron sulfide (FeS) is trained. The relationship between the number of atoms is 1:1. The ratio of the mass of individual atoms in the atomic mass of sulfur and iron, and 1.45 (7:4).

Democritus Atom

ere are my reflections Democritus Atom

The reality is not real It's a dream. It is not a metaphor. Quantum level of reality, it is sufficient to pure energy. We believe that the real Democritus of Abdera long ago discovered. Democritus (around 460 BC-370 BC) was a Greek scholar, best known for his atomic theory. It is used by Diogenes Laertius had said: "There are only atoms and empty, the rest is of the view."

Long time it was thought that these atoms are small, at least, like billiard balls. Thereafter, they were as little solar systems with electrons around a nucleus of flights.

Today physicists believe that the atoms in the cloud, because the subatomic particles appear and disappear, and it is no more space in an atom otherwise.

All this means that the decline in importance, is the pure energy.

This energy combined in the form are important because the work of consciousness. In other words, without the observer, the reality is questionable.

You are aware that your dream. And it works in harmony with others on the planet to the global application of sensitization. We urge the entire assembly of the dream of reality.

Over the eons, the dream of reality, from the depth and volume. It is an institution. And that now includes the creation of us and what we are, what you in the mirror of space-time continuum.

Diogenes was simply the macroscopic world, too. These are ratings.

This gives much influence, because when you believe something to create your reality. To change your reality, all you have to do is show your beliefs about yourself and what you believe, is a reality.

In quantum physics has argued that the eye, you see the world of forms, the forms that you see.

Perception is not passive, like most people who are unconsciously following the Newtonian paradigm to believe, but active, in other words, is an act of creation.

Aware, you must exercise your imagination and how you and your reality.

This means that you are not a part of life, but a more creative and more in this term fluid and dynamic, they are your creations.

Most people live their lives in a state of passive, which is because they do not understand that their thoughts and feelings are the cosmic waves of the things inside and outside your experience.

However, if you find that what we have thought that in all areas, whether known or unknown, then you will also have the opportunity to get what you want and not what you want.

Demonstration is not a secret science. It is a fact of human experience. Instead of a rarity, is the basis of consciousness.

Those who have good power to do it in such a way that every thought is a message that the collective unconscious, to give you what you want, you will need.

In view of the mind, which is perfect, but unconsciously, telepathy with any other thoughts. Consciousness is not a collection of units, but a group of the ocean in which all are involved.

It also directly affects the mind, the reorganization of the molecules, and that the evidence for the self-healing is possible if you think that you love your thinking cells.

Whoever you are, then a front of a canvas, a sculptor in front of a marble block, an author, just to write the story of his life and his impact on the lives of the world in the process.
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